Weekly Neuroscience Update

June 14, 2024Leave a comment

Functional brain networks that are connected to the affective intensity and valence information. Left: The affective valence information is connected to the limbic and default mode networks, and the affective intensity information is connected to the ventral attention network. Right: The probability that the affective intensity and valence is connected to each of seven functional brain networks. Credit: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (2024).

Reading Pleasure and Pain from the Brain — Functional brain networks that are connected to the affective intensity and valence information. Left: The affective valence information is connected to the limbic and default mode networks, and the affective intensity information is connected to the ventral attention network. Right: The probability that the affective intensity and valence is connected to each of seven functional brain networks. Credit: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (2024).

A team of researchers has revealed how the brain processes emotional information of sustained pain and pleasure.

Scientists have uncovered the inner relay of a molecular switch that protects the brain against the development of Parkinson’s disease. The research provides new potential strategies to develop drugs that may benefit patients with Parkinson’s.

Brain-to-brain technology boosts brain-computer interface performance, a new study demonstrates.

Researchers have identified, for the first time, disease-specific reduction in emotional expressivity in Lewy body dementia by quantifying vocal expression of emotions using deep neural network techniques. This reduction in vocal emotional expressions was associated with cognitive impairment and specific brain region atrophy and could serve as a distinguishing factor for individuals with Lewy body dementia.

A new study finds the timing of brain waves shapes the words we hear.

New research has given a precise picture of young children’s developing brains, using a wearable brain scanner to map electrical brain activity. The work opens up new possibilities for tracking how critical developmental milestones, like walking and talking, are underpinned by changing brain function, and how neurodevelopmental conditions like autism emerge.

A new AI technique can identify seizure types, including rare forms of epilepsy.

A new study reveals that a poor quality diet may lead to brain changes associated with depression and anxiety. Researchers found that unhealthy eating habits reduce grey matter and alter neurotransmitter levels in the brain.

Research sheds new light on the contribution of dopamine to reinforcement learning.

A new study uncovered neural mechanisms used in planning, revealing an interplay between the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus. The study shows how the brain imagines future outcomes to guide decisions.

Losing the ability to smell properly—a common sensory deficit as people age—may help predict or even contribute to the development of heart failure, new research suggests.

A new study reveals that the main psychoactive component in cannabis or marijuana disrupts the normal connections and activity of the brain’s prefrontal cortex, a region that is crucial for decision-making and self-control.

Finally this week, people tend to underutilize their visual working memory rather than maxing out its capabilities according to new research.

Weekly Neuroscience Update

May 17, 2024May 17, 2024Leave a comment

Researchers at University of Cambridge and other institutes worldwide recently carried out a study that linked gene expression in healthy brains to the imaging, transcriptomics and genetics of autism spectrum disorder and schizophrenia. Their paper, published in Nature Neuroscience, unveiled three distinct spatial patterns of cortical gene expression each with specific associations to autism and schizophrenia

A study published in the Journal of the American College of Cardiology suggests that physical activity may reduce cardiovascular disease risk by lowering stress-related brain activity.

A team of researchers at Baylor College of Medicine and Yale University incorporated generative artificial intelligence (AI) to create a foundational model for brain activity. The Brain Language Model (BrainLM) was developed to model the brain in silico and to determine how brain activities are related to human behavior and brain diseases.

Using MRI, engineers have found a way to detect light deep in the brain.

Stressful life events, such as the death of a loved one or divorce, put a person at greater risk of developing dementia in later life, a recent study has found. But only if the stressful event happened in childhood or midlife.

Our brains process odours differently depending on the names assigned to them, according to new research.

People with neurological disease have a greater chance of death after contracting COVID-19, according to a new study. The research also confirms a higher risk of developing new neurological disorders after COVID infection.

Children who experience chronic lack of sleep from infancy may be at increased risk of developing psychosis in early adulthood, new research shows.

A team of brain specialists at the California Institute of Technology has developed a brain–computer interface approach to decode words “spoken” entirely in the brain by recording signals from individual neurons in real time.

A new study shows that the cerebellum is involved in processing emotions, with implications for ataxia care.

A research team has revealed the link between the frequency of sleep apnea events during the rapid-eye-movement stage and the severity of verbal memory impairment in older adults at risk for Alzheimer’s disease. Verbal memory refers to the cognitive ability to retain and recall information presented through spoken words or written text and is particularly vulnerable to Alzheimer’s.

Results from a recent neuroplasticity study show how singing rehabilitates speech production in post-stroke aphasia.

For the first time, researchers have succeeded in explaining the propagation of traveling waves of activity in the human brain using a computer simulation. Previous studies indicate that these waves are important for various cognitive functions such as memory.

A new publication in Scientific Reports unveils a promising non-opioid pain treatment.

Repeated blows to the heads of football players can damage the small blood vessels of the brain, according to research by scientists who believe this damage may contribute to brain dysfunction in some athletes years after play has ended.

New research has shed light in the complex interplay between cell proteins, and how they impact on neurons in neurodevelopmental disorders and Alzheimer’s disease.

Artificial intelligence (AI) computer programs that process MRI results show differences in how the brains of men and women are organized at a cellular level, a new study shows. These variations were spotted in white matter, tissue primarily located in the human brain’s innermost layer, which fosters communication between regions.

Finally, this week, climate change, and its effects on weather patterns and adverse weather events is likely to negatively affect the health of people with brain conditions.

Weekly Neuroscience Update

April 5, 2024April 5, 2024Leave a comment

To the left of the figure, the red-yellow color denotes the regions that degenerate earlier than the rest of the brain, and are vulnerable to Alzheimer’s disease. These brain areas are higher-order regions that process and combine information coming from our different senses. To the right of the figure, each dot represents the brain data from one UK Biobank participant. The overall curve shows that, in these particularly fragile regions of the brain, there is accelerated degeneration with age. Credit: G. Douaud and J. Manuello.

In a new study published in Nature Communications, researchers investigated the genetic and modifiable influences on fragile brain regions by looking at the brain scans of 40,000 UK Biobank participants aged over 45.

Scientists have shown for the first time that a type of thinking that has been described for over a century as a developmental milestone of adolescence may grow teenagers’ brains over time.

A team of neurologists, stem cell specialists and molecular biologists affiliated with several institutions in the U.S. and led by a group at Stanford University School of Medicine has found evidence that the root cause of Alzheimer’s disease may be fat buildup in brain cells. The study is published in the journal Nature.

New research highlights the critical role of unique gut bacteria in newborns, producing serotonin to educate immune cells and prevent allergic reactions early in life.

People continuously exposed to bright, artificial light at night may be at increased risk of developing conditions that affect blood flow to the brain and having a stroke, according to research published in Stroke.

Researchers reveal new findings on the complexity of age-related memory decline and neural dedifferentiation, challenging existing theories on cognitive aging.

A new study has found that amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD) exhibit strikingly similar cellular and molecular characteristics, despite affecting different brain regions and showing distinct clinical symptoms.

New research reveals how the human brain processes vital signals from the heart and lungs, offering new insights into the complex brain-body integration essential for health and cognition.

In a new study, AI processed text from health histories and neurologic examinations to locate lesions in the brain. The study, which looked specifically at the large language model called generative pre-trained transformer 4 (GPT-4), is published in the online issue of Neurology Clinical Practice.

New research shows that disturbed gut flora during the first years of life is associated with diagnoses such as autism and ADHD later in life.

Bilingualism may serve as a powerful tool against age-related cognitive decline, particularly in social cognition areas such as the theory of mind. A new study demonstrates that early bilingualism leads to beneficial structural changes in the brain, including increased gray matter volume and cortical thickness, which contribute to a stronger cognitive reserve.

In a study published in Nature Mental Health, scientists have found that individuals suffering from chronic musculoskeletal pain (CMP) may face a higher risk of brain aging.

A new analysis involving over 13,000 people has found changes to blood vessels in the brain that can increase the risk of stroke and dementia are common in people with a range of heart conditions, regardless of whether they have experienced a stroke.

A Canadian-led study has identified genes that may be partially responsible for the development of cerebral palsy.

Researchers have introduced a new, refined method for analyzing brain signals, enhancing our understanding of brain functionality. This research has the potential to improve treatments for neurological conditions such as Parkinson’s disease, pain, epilepsy and depression.

A study reveals that Lewy body disease, a major neurodegenerative disorder, may start developing in individuals as early as middle age, well before symptoms manifest.

Researchers have shown that the brain chemical GABA regulates activity in the retina of the eye in autistic and non-autistic individuals differently. Autistic people have larger responses to single light flashes in the retina of the eye and this new study shows that increasing GABA activity can reduce this response.

Finally this week, a study by the University of Sheffield has cast doubt on the efficacy of non-invasive brain stimulation techniques in improving visual working memory.

Weekly Neuroscience Update

March 15, 2024Leave a comment

*Graphical representation of the analysis procedure to relate word-by-word predictors of linguistic complexity to BOLD activity. Credit: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (2024).*

How does the brain respond to sentence structure as we speak and listen? In a neuroimaging study published in PNAS, researchers investigated sentence processing during spontaneous speech for the first time.

A research team has achieved a breakthrough in stem cell research, offering tools that can be used for patients who require highly personalized care.

Researchers demonstrated promising results for PTSD treatment in military veterans by combining brain stimulation with virtual reality exposure therapy. The clinical trial showed significant reductions in PTSD symptoms among participants who received low electrical current brain stimulation during virtual reality sessions designed to simulate warzone experiences.

A new study involving participants from 15 countries, shed light on the universal preference for simple integer ratios in rhythms, revealing significant cultural variations in musical perception.

Researchers have uncovered a strikingly similar suite of changes in gene activity in brain tissue from people with schizophrenia and from older adults. These changes suggest a common biological basis for the cognitive impairment often seen in people with schizophrenia and in the elderly.

A new study reveals a direct correlation between adversities faced in childhood and adulthood with later psychiatric and cognitive decline.

A new study reveals a strong link between daytime physical activity and improved sleep quality among both children and adults. Analyzing the daily routines of over 2500 participants, the research highlights how higher levels of moderate to vigorous physical activity correlate with fewer sleep disturbances, less daytime tiredness, and overall better sleep quality.

In an innovative study published in Science Advances, researchers have unveiled new insights into the intricate relationship between emotion and perception.

Even people whose physical activity levels fall short of recommended guidelines, but who manage to do some during their leisure time, are likely to have a lower risk of stroke than their sedentary peers, suggests a pooled data analysis of the available evidence, published online in the Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry.

A recent study showcases a significant leap in the study of brain oscillations, particularly ripples, which are crucial for memory organization and are affected in disorders like epilepsy and Alzheimer’s.

People who have headaches after experiencing concussions may also be more likely to have higher levels of iron in areas of the brain, which is a sign of injury to brain cells, according to a preliminary study that will be presented at the American Academy of Neurology’s 76^th Annual Meeting taking place April 13–18, 2024.

The COVID-19 virus can persist in the blood and tissue of patients for more than a year after the acute phase of the illness has ended, according to new research.

Researchers identified sildenafil, known commercially as Viagra, as a promising candidate for treating Alzheimer’s disease. Leveraging artificial intelligence the team analyzed vast amounts of data, including insurance claims and brain cell observations, to highlight sildenafil’s potential benefits in reducing Alzheimer’s prevalence and neurotoxic proteins.

A new study provides some of the most detailed insights yet into the brain mechanisms that help people pay attention amid such distraction, as well as what’s happening when they can’t focus.

A new AI language model identifies clinical symptoms in medical summaries and links them to brain tissue from donors of the Netherlands Brain Bank. This yields new insights into the development of individual disease progression and contributes to a better understanding of common misdiagnoses of brain diseases. The model may, in the future, assist in making more accurate diagnoses.

Researchers have discovered a brain circuit that drives vocalization and ensures that you talk only when you breathe out, and stop talking when you breathe in.

For the first time, neuroscientists have established a link between shifts in our visual perception and the cadence of our steps while walking.

A new study examines the potential of artificial intelligence to shift chronic pain treatment from opioids to mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR). Utilizing machine learning to analyze extensive patient data, the study aims to predict which patients will benefit most from MBSR, a critical step toward personalized medicine.

Finally this week, new research reveals how the human brain processes vital signals from the heart and lungs, offering new insights into the complex brain-body integration essential for health and cognition.

Weekly Neuroscience Update

March 8, 2024Leave a comment

*Synergetic framework. Credit: Trends in Cognitive Sciences*

A new model for understanding the brain paves the way for more accurate diagnoses and treatments.

For people with drug-resistant epilepsy, having a dog companion trained in detecting seizures and other epilepsy-related tasks may reduce the amount of seizures they have, according to new research published in Neurology.

New research shows that continued cocaine use disrupts communication between major brain networks.

Researchers are embarking on a pioneering study to uncover how genes associated with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) converge to affect brain neurons, particularly leading to heightened sound sensitivity. This research aims to identify common neural circuit mechanisms that may underlie the diverse genetic pathways contributing to ASD, focusing on auditory hypersensitivity, a condition that significantly impacts individuals’ lives.

Two new studies explore how closely attention and eye movements are linked and reveal how the brain coordinates the two processes.

A pioneering new study using virtual reality (VR) aims to identify early signs of Alzheimer’s disease through impaired spatial navigation in asymptomatic adults at risk. By testing 100 middle-aged adults with genetic, familial, or lifestyle risk factors for Alzheimer’s, the study discovered that spatial navigation difficulties in VR environments precede traditional cognitive decline symptoms. Notably, this impairment was more pronounced in men than women, suggesting a gender-specific vulnerability

Mounting research shows that COVID-19 leaves its mark on the brain, including significant drops in IQ scores.

A daily fiber supplement improved brain function in people over 60 in just 12 weeks. The study, published recently in Nature Communications showed that this simple and cheap addition to diet can improve performance in memory tests associated with early signs of Alzheimer’s disease.

A new study has found mutations in key brain cells among individuals with chronic opioid use that could shift how we think about treatment strategies for opioid use disorder.

According to a Mayo Clinic study published in Nature Neuroscience, the cells that act as the central nervous system’s first line of defense against harm also play a role in helping the brain awaken from anesthesia. This discovery could help pave the way for innovative methods that address post-anesthesia complications.

Scientists have trained a bank of AI models to identify patterns of brain activity that signal memory formation.

People who experience sleep apnea may be more likely to also have memory or thinking problems, according to a preliminary study that will be presented at the American Academy of Neurology’s 76th Annual Meeting taking place April 13–18, 2024.

Schizophrenia is associated with an increased risk of subsequent cardiovascular disease events, with the association stronger in women, according to a new study.

New research delves into the genetic underpinnings of language development in early childhood and its implications for later cognitive abilities and neurodevelopmental disorders such as Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Interestingly, the research highlights a developmental shift in the genetic associations with ADHD symptoms, suggesting that the role of genetics in language development and its impact on neurodevelopmental outcomes is complex and changes over time. This study underscores the importance of understanding the early linguistic journey as a window into a child’s future mental health and cognitive prowess.

Finally this week, a new neuroimaging study is the first to reveal how the brain gets to the creative flow state.

Weekly Neuroscience Update

November 25, 2023November 25, 2023Leave a comment

Researchers have investigated the shared and unique neural processes that underlie different types of long-term memory: general semantic, personal semantic, and episodic memory, suggesting that these memory types all use the same network of the brain, rather than relying on different areas of the brain altogether. This questions a previous theory that characterizes general semantic and episodic memory as two distinct systems. Instead, the authors suggest that different long-term memory types could be viewed as a spectrum, where they rely on activating the same areas of the brain at differing magnitudes.

Scientists can now pinpoint where someone’s eyes are looking just by listening to their ears.

Using a specialized device that translates images into sound, neuroscientists have shown that people who are blind recognize basic faces using the part of the brain known as the fusiform face area, a region that is crucial for the processing of faces in sighted people.

People with long COVID exhibit patterns of changes in the brain that are different from fully recovered COVID-19 patients, according to new research.

What is the mechanism that allows our brains to incorporate new information about the world, and form memories? New work led by Dr. Tomás Ryan from Trinity College Dublin shows that learning occurs through the continuous formation of new connectivity patterns between specific engram cells in different regions of the brain.

New research indicates that acoustic stimulation of the brain may ease persistent symptoms in individuals who have experienced mild traumatic brain injury in the past.

Scientists have discovered that Alzheimer’s-related changes in brain networks extend beyond memory and attention, impacting sensory and motor circuits. These findings challenge previous assumptions about Alzheimer’s effects.

A pivotal discovery in addiction science has found a correlation between microstructural deficits in the prefrontal cortex-habenula tract and the development and maintenance of addiction.

Researchers have unveiled a pioneering technique for charting the intricate conversations occurring within our brains. Such insights are key to decoding behavioral alterations in neurological disease patients. The innovative tool, CaMPARI, allows scientists to witness brain activity in real-time, marking active neurons red and inactive ones green. This breakthrough could offer pathways to better treatments and understanding of diseases like Alzheimer’s.

A team of neuroscientists has found evidence suggesting that the neural development of babies still in the womb is impacted by the language they hear spoken by their mothers as they carry them.

A new study has discovered a link between a new gene pathway and structural brain anomalies in some people who stutter into adulthood, opening up promising research avenues to enhance the understanding of persistent developmental stuttering.

Finally this week, researchers have developed a tool that simplifies the identification of errors in neural networks used for image recognition.

Weekly Neuroscience Update

November 3, 2023November 3, 2023Leave a comment

Acetylcholine wave traveling from lateral (L) to medial (M) in the striatum Credit: Dr. Joshua Goldberg, Prof. Jeffery Wickens, Dr. Nicolas Tristch

A new study unveils the existence of traveling waves of the neurochemical acetylcholine in the striatum, a region of the brain responsible for motivating actions and habitual behaviors.

Researchers have conducted a study aimed at better understanding the patterns in neural network communication associated with ‘bad’ decisions made while gambling. Their paper, published in Frontiers in Neuroscience, shows that different types of ‘bad’ decisions made while gambling, namely avoidant and approach decisions, are associated with distinct neural communication patterns.

What determines how a teenager’s brain is structured and how it evolves? Researchers have established a close link between brain activity and a maturation process called cortical thinning.

Researchers have found COVID-19 does not appear to cause direct brain damage or viral invasion. In blood or cerebrospinal fluid samples, no abnormal biomarkers were found. The findings thus suggest that post-COVID condition is not the result of ongoing infection, immune activation, or brain damage.

A recent study finds differences in functional brain connectivity in people with and without psychosis and schizophrenia that could help researchers understand the neural underpinnings of this disease.

Brain health in people over age 50 deteriorated more rapidly during the pandemic, even if they didn’t have COVID-19, according to major new research linking the pandemic to sustained cognitive decline. The cognitive decline seems to have been exacerbated by several factors during the pandemic, including an increase in loneliness and depression, a decrease in exercise, and higher alcohol consumption.

Prenatal lead exposure is associated with an increased risk for cognitive developmental delay in children, according to a new study.

Children who are too short for their age can suffer reduced cognitive ability arising from differences in brain function as early as six months of age, according to new research. Stunted growth had previously been linked with poor cognitive outcomes later in life, but this is the first time that this association has been found in infancy. It is also the first time stunted growth has been linked to functional differences in how the brain works in early development.

Finally this week, researchers have developed a new method for mapping how the parts of the brain “speak” to each other, critical to understanding behavior changes in patients with neurological disease.

Weekly Neuroscience Update

July 30, 2023Leave a comment

A new study reveals that individuals with stronger ‘mindreading’ abilities, or the capacity to understand others’ feelings and intentions, are more successful in cooperative tasks. This trait, also known as ‘theory of mind,’ is not directly tied to intelligence and can potentially be improved through training programs.

Researchers have identified proteomic changes associated with forms of Alzheimer’s disease.

People in their eighties who can recall everyday events and life experiences as well as someone 20 to 30 years younger—known as superagers—are also more likely to have greater movement speed than typical older adults. They also have lower rates of anxiety and depression, according to a new study published in The Lancet Healthy Longevity journal.

A research team has developed a tool that counts brain lesions in seconds.

A new study has found that the frequency and duration of naps in infants are an indication of their cognitive needs. According to the research, infants with smaller vocabularies and poorer cognitive abilities tend to nap more frequently.

Researchers have discovered that myo-inositol, a small cyclic sugar molecule found in breast milk, plays a crucial role in promoting neuronal connections in infants’ brains.

Neuroscientists have proposed a fresh perspective on systems consolidation, the process by which certain memories are moved from the hippocampus to the neocortex for long-term storage. Their theory, backed by a mathematical neural network model, posits that the consolidation of memories depends on their generalizability, not age. This theory suggests a new memory, which is a generalization of previous memories, is created during consolidation.

Researchers have utilized artificial intelligence to uncover the promising potential of extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) in combating Alzheimer’s disease (AD).

New research heightened light sensitivity in Alzheimer’s patients to “sundowning,” a worsening of symptoms late in the day, and sleep disruptions that may advance the disease. This fresh understanding of biological clock disruptions in Alzheimer’s could aid the creation of treatments and symptom management. Light therapy could potentially regulate erratic sleep patterns caused by altered circadian rhythms.

Finally this week, scientists have identified a group of nerve cells in the midbrain, which, when stimulated, can suspend all movement, akin to setting a film on pause.

Weekly Neuroscience Update

July 7, 2023July 7, 2023Leave a comment

Artificial Intelligence (AI), specifically GPT-4, was found to match the top 1% of human thinkers on a standard creativity test. The AI application ChatGPT, developed using GPT-4, excelled in fluency and originality in the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking, a widely recognized tool for assessing creativity. This breakthrough finding indicates that AI may be developing creative ability on par with or even surpassing human capabilities.

Researchers have identified a small structure in the brain, the anterior precuneus or aPCu, as a crucial component in establishing our physical self or “I”.

Taking good care of your teeth may be linked to better brain health, according to a study published in Neurology. The study found that gum disease and tooth loss were linked to brain shrinkage in the hippocampus, which plays a role in memory and Alzheimer’s disease. The study does not prove that gum disease or tooth loss causes Alzheimer’s disease; it only shows an association.

A new study has demonstrated for the first time that the diagnosis of multiple sclerosis (MS) can be significantly improved by additionally measuring the thickness of retinal layers in the eye.

Distinct, though neighbouring, areas of the brain are activated when processing music and language, with specific sub-regions engaged for simple melodies versus complex melodies, and for simple versus complex sentences, according to researchers.

New findings suggest that depression after traumatic brain injury (TBI) could be a clinically distinct disorder rather than traditional major depressive disorder, with implications for patient treatment.

If you’re sleep deprived, you will likely have a harder time remembering things than if you’re well-rested. But if you have good cardiorespiratory fitness, your memory may be less affected by the effects of sleep deprivation than others, according to a recent McGill study published in the journal Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise.

Finally this week, even during sleep, the sounds that infants are exposed to can play a big role in language development, especially for babies at risk of language delays.

How Experience Shapes Your Brain #BrainAwarenessWeek

March 16, 2019March 17, 2019Leave a comment

Early experiences affect the development of brain architecture, which provides the foundation for all future learning, behaviour, and health.

Brains are built over time, from the bottom up.

The basic architecture of the brain is constructed through a process that begins early in life and continues into adulthood.

Simpler circuits come first and more complex brain circuits build on them later.

Brain architecture is comprised of billions of connections between individual neurons across different areas of the brain.

These connections enable lightning-fast communication among neurons that specialise in different kinds of brain functions. The early years are the most active period for establishing neural connections, but new connections can form throughout life and unused connections continue to be pruned.

The interactions of genes and experience shape the developing brain.

Genes provide the basic blueprint, but experiences influence how or whether genes are expressed. Together, they shape the quality of brain architecture and establish either a sturdy or a fragile foundation for all of the learning, health, and behaviour that follow.

Although genes provide the blueprint for the formation of brain circuits, these circuits are reinforced by repeated use.

A major ingredient in this developmental process is the interaction between children and their parents and other caregivers in the family or community.

In the absence of responsive caregiving—or if responses are unreliable or inappropriate—the brain’s architecture does not form as expected, which can lead to disparities in learning and behavior.

HCDC_Levitt-Plasticity-Curve_SHARE-768x540

It is easier and less costly to form strong brain circuits during the early years than it is to intervene or “fix” them later.

Cognitive, emotional, and social capacities are inextricably intertwined throughout the life course.

The brain is a highly integrated organ and its multiple functions operate in coordination with one another. Emotional well-being and social competence provide a strong foundation for emerging cognitive abilities, and together they are the bricks and mortar of brain architecture.

Adapted from The Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University.