Weekly Neuroscience Update

March 15, 2024Leave a comment

*Graphical representation of the analysis procedure to relate word-by-word predictors of linguistic complexity to BOLD activity. Credit: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (2024).*

How does the brain respond to sentence structure as we speak and listen? In a neuroimaging study published in PNAS, researchers investigated sentence processing during spontaneous speech for the first time.

A research team has achieved a breakthrough in stem cell research, offering tools that can be used for patients who require highly personalized care.

Researchers demonstrated promising results for PTSD treatment in military veterans by combining brain stimulation with virtual reality exposure therapy. The clinical trial showed significant reductions in PTSD symptoms among participants who received low electrical current brain stimulation during virtual reality sessions designed to simulate warzone experiences.

A new study involving participants from 15 countries, shed light on the universal preference for simple integer ratios in rhythms, revealing significant cultural variations in musical perception.

Researchers have uncovered a strikingly similar suite of changes in gene activity in brain tissue from people with schizophrenia and from older adults. These changes suggest a common biological basis for the cognitive impairment often seen in people with schizophrenia and in the elderly.

A new study reveals a direct correlation between adversities faced in childhood and adulthood with later psychiatric and cognitive decline.

A new study reveals a strong link between daytime physical activity and improved sleep quality among both children and adults. Analyzing the daily routines of over 2500 participants, the research highlights how higher levels of moderate to vigorous physical activity correlate with fewer sleep disturbances, less daytime tiredness, and overall better sleep quality.

In an innovative study published in Science Advances, researchers have unveiled new insights into the intricate relationship between emotion and perception.

Even people whose physical activity levels fall short of recommended guidelines, but who manage to do some during their leisure time, are likely to have a lower risk of stroke than their sedentary peers, suggests a pooled data analysis of the available evidence, published online in the Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry.

A recent study showcases a significant leap in the study of brain oscillations, particularly ripples, which are crucial for memory organization and are affected in disorders like epilepsy and Alzheimer’s.

People who have headaches after experiencing concussions may also be more likely to have higher levels of iron in areas of the brain, which is a sign of injury to brain cells, according to a preliminary study that will be presented at the American Academy of Neurology’s 76^th Annual Meeting taking place April 13–18, 2024.

The COVID-19 virus can persist in the blood and tissue of patients for more than a year after the acute phase of the illness has ended, according to new research.

Researchers identified sildenafil, known commercially as Viagra, as a promising candidate for treating Alzheimer’s disease. Leveraging artificial intelligence the team analyzed vast amounts of data, including insurance claims and brain cell observations, to highlight sildenafil’s potential benefits in reducing Alzheimer’s prevalence and neurotoxic proteins.

A new study provides some of the most detailed insights yet into the brain mechanisms that help people pay attention amid such distraction, as well as what’s happening when they can’t focus.

A new AI language model identifies clinical symptoms in medical summaries and links them to brain tissue from donors of the Netherlands Brain Bank. This yields new insights into the development of individual disease progression and contributes to a better understanding of common misdiagnoses of brain diseases. The model may, in the future, assist in making more accurate diagnoses.

Researchers have discovered a brain circuit that drives vocalization and ensures that you talk only when you breathe out, and stop talking when you breathe in.

For the first time, neuroscientists have established a link between shifts in our visual perception and the cadence of our steps while walking.

A new study examines the potential of artificial intelligence to shift chronic pain treatment from opioids to mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR). Utilizing machine learning to analyze extensive patient data, the study aims to predict which patients will benefit most from MBSR, a critical step toward personalized medicine.

Finally this week, new research reveals how the human brain processes vital signals from the heart and lungs, offering new insights into the complex brain-body integration essential for health and cognition.

Weekly Neuroscience Update

March 8, 2024Leave a comment

*Synergetic framework. Credit: Trends in Cognitive Sciences*

A new model for understanding the brain paves the way for more accurate diagnoses and treatments.

For people with drug-resistant epilepsy, having a dog companion trained in detecting seizures and other epilepsy-related tasks may reduce the amount of seizures they have, according to new research published in Neurology.

New research shows that continued cocaine use disrupts communication between major brain networks.

Researchers are embarking on a pioneering study to uncover how genes associated with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) converge to affect brain neurons, particularly leading to heightened sound sensitivity. This research aims to identify common neural circuit mechanisms that may underlie the diverse genetic pathways contributing to ASD, focusing on auditory hypersensitivity, a condition that significantly impacts individuals’ lives.

Two new studies explore how closely attention and eye movements are linked and reveal how the brain coordinates the two processes.

A pioneering new study using virtual reality (VR) aims to identify early signs of Alzheimer’s disease through impaired spatial navigation in asymptomatic adults at risk. By testing 100 middle-aged adults with genetic, familial, or lifestyle risk factors for Alzheimer’s, the study discovered that spatial navigation difficulties in VR environments precede traditional cognitive decline symptoms. Notably, this impairment was more pronounced in men than women, suggesting a gender-specific vulnerability

Mounting research shows that COVID-19 leaves its mark on the brain, including significant drops in IQ scores.

A daily fiber supplement improved brain function in people over 60 in just 12 weeks. The study, published recently in Nature Communications showed that this simple and cheap addition to diet can improve performance in memory tests associated with early signs of Alzheimer’s disease.

A new study has found mutations in key brain cells among individuals with chronic opioid use that could shift how we think about treatment strategies for opioid use disorder.

According to a Mayo Clinic study published in Nature Neuroscience, the cells that act as the central nervous system’s first line of defense against harm also play a role in helping the brain awaken from anesthesia. This discovery could help pave the way for innovative methods that address post-anesthesia complications.

Scientists have trained a bank of AI models to identify patterns of brain activity that signal memory formation.

People who experience sleep apnea may be more likely to also have memory or thinking problems, according to a preliminary study that will be presented at the American Academy of Neurology’s 76th Annual Meeting taking place April 13–18, 2024.

Schizophrenia is associated with an increased risk of subsequent cardiovascular disease events, with the association stronger in women, according to a new study.

New research delves into the genetic underpinnings of language development in early childhood and its implications for later cognitive abilities and neurodevelopmental disorders such as Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Interestingly, the research highlights a developmental shift in the genetic associations with ADHD symptoms, suggesting that the role of genetics in language development and its impact on neurodevelopmental outcomes is complex and changes over time. This study underscores the importance of understanding the early linguistic journey as a window into a child’s future mental health and cognitive prowess.

Finally this week, a new neuroimaging study is the first to reveal how the brain gets to the creative flow state.

Weekly Neuroscience Update

March 1, 2024Leave a comment

^{A cell membrane is illustrated to show the surface in red. Blue objects are proteins, including ion channels, which can send electrical impulses into cells. Lipids, or fats, are in yellow. In this cross section, an ion channel associates with a lipid raft. The function of the lipid structures is regulated by cholesterol. Mechanical force can deplete the cholesterol and release the ion channel, changing activity within the cell. Credit: Scott Hansen, Ph.D., The Wertheim UF Scripps Institute}

New research shows how physical pressure on cells can reduce pain signals, while excessive cholesterol clumps in cell membranes can interfere with that process.

Researchers have advanced our understanding of the neuronal basis of spatial memory. Their research reveals that during spatial memory tasks, different types of nerve cells activate in unison, coordinated by brain waves known as “ripples.”

Researchers have unveiled a pioneering technology capable of real-time human emotion recognition, promising transformative applications in wearable devices and digital services.

Children who lived in areas with higher levels of airborne lead in their first five years of life appeared to have slightly lower IQs and less self-control, with boys showing more sensitivity to lead exposure, according to a new study.

New research challenges the conventional picture of Parkinson’s disease.

A neurotransmitter previously thought only to calm neurons may also play a role in waking them up, according to a study published in the journal PLOS Biology, a discovery that challenges the textbook view of how neurons communicate with one another in the brain.

Researchers have achieved a breakthrough in mapping the brain’s ‘dysfunctome’—key dysfunctional circuits linked to disorders like Parkinson’s, dystonia, OCD, and Tourette’s syndrome.

Scientists have delved into the world of chemical neuromodulators in the human brain, specifically dopamine and serotonin, to reveal their role in social behavior. The study revealed a previously unknown neurochemical mechanism for a well-known human tendency to make decisions based on social context—people are more likely to accept offers from computers while rejecting identical offers from human players.

New research identifies nerve endings that shed light on gut-brain communication.

Live music significantly amplifies emotional responses in the brain compared to recorded tunes. By measuring amygdala activity, researchers found that live performances evoke stronger emotional reactions, fostering a deeper cognitive and affective processing throughout the brain.

A new study reveals that oxygenation levels in the placenta during the last trimester of pregnancy are a key predictor of the development of the cerebral cortex and likely childhood cognition and behavior.

Blood vessels that cross-connect adjacent arterial trees regulate blood flow to the brain in stroke patients. Researchers have now shown that these vessels prevent brain hemorrhage following treatment to remove blood clots.

Researchers have developed a simulator that enables artificial visual observations for research into the visual prosthesis.

A cross-cultural study has revealed that music universally influences bodily sensations and emotions, transcending cultural boundaries. Researchers from Western and East Asian backgrounds discovered that emotional and structural characteristics of music consistently evoke similar bodily sensations—such as changes in the chest, limbs, and head regions—regardless of cultural background.

A new study finds concussions alter connectivity among brain regions.

New research has unveiled a crucial role of sleep: brainwaves facilitate the cleansing of the brain by flushing out waste. This discovery not only underscores the brain’s non-dormant state during sleep but also highlights a sophisticated system where neurons’ synchronized activity powers the flow of cerebrospinal fluid, effectively removing metabolic waste and potentially neurodegenerative disease-causing toxins.

Finally this week, COVID-19 may have an impact on people’s cognitive and memory abilities that lasts a year or more after infection, according to a new study by Imperial College London researchers.

Weekly Neuroscience Update

February 23, 2024Leave a comment

Melodic pitch, pitch-change, and expectation modulate STG activity during music listening. (A) Three melodic features visualized for an example melody. (B) Electrodes across all participants (N = 8) plotted on a common brain. Color indicates the peak evoked high-frequency activity (HFA) averaged across all musical phrases. (C) Responses at three example electrodes demonstrating distinct tuning to pitch. Credit: *Science Advances* (2024)

Researchers have developed a precise map of what is happening in the cerebral cortex when someone hears a melody.

Scientists have made a groundbreaking discovery, identifying a rare lipid as a crucial factor in ferroptosis, a unique form of cell death. The findings provide new detail on how cells die during ferroptosis and could improve understanding of how to stop ferroptosis in contexts where it is harmfully occurring– in neurodegenerative diseases, for example– or induce it in contexts where it could be useful, such as using it to kill dangerous cancer cells.

Our brains are “programmed” to learn more from people we like – and less from those we dislike. This has been shown by researchers in cognitive neuroscience in a series of experiments.

An intensive meditation-based intervention (iMI) significantly improves positive symptoms, particularly refractory hallucinations and delusions, in male patients with schizophrenia, according to a new study.

Indigenous people may be more likely to have a stroke than non-Indigenous people, according to a systematic review that looked at populations around the world.

A new study highlights the critical link between sleep, circadian rhythms, and psychiatric disorders, suggesting that disturbances in sleep and internal body clocks can trigger or exacerbate mental health issues. The research underscores the prevalence of sleep-circadian disturbances across all psychiatric disorders, pointing to the need for holistic treatments that address these factors.

For individuals with post-COVID-19 condition, cognitive symptoms are common, according to a study published online Feb. 14 in JAMA Network Open.

Researchers have developed an artificial intelligence model that accurately determines the sex of individuals based on brain scans, with over 90% success. This breakthrough supports the theory that significant sex differences in brain organization exist, challenging long-standing controversies.

A new population-based study reveals the roles of maternal and fetal genes in the growth of a baby’s cerebral cortex.

A new study explains how dopamine influences movement sequences, offering hope for Parkinson’s disease (PD) therapies. Researchers observed that dopamine not only motivates movement but also controls the length and lateralization of actions, with different neurons activating for movement initiation and reward reception.

New research sheds light on what goes on inside people’s heads as they make decisions to obtain information about the future.

Moderate/severe and penetrating traumatic brain injury (TBI) are associated with an increased risk for subsequent development of brain cancer, according to a study published online Feb. 15 in JAMA Network Open.

For the first time, researchers have mapped out the proteins implicated in the early stages of motor neuron disease (MND).

In a study published in the Journal of Neuroscience, scientists demonstrated the effectiveness of using low-intensity focused ultrasound to modulate the activity in a critical region in the brain that processes and regulates pain signals.

Finally this week, new research shows how empathy can be socially transmitted.

Weekly Neuroscience Update

February 16, 2024Leave a comment

Credit: *Neuron* (2024). DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2024.01.013

A new study has found the immune system in the blood of Alzheimer’s patients is epigenetically altered. That means the patients’ behavior or environment has caused changes that affect the way their genes work.

A team of researchers has developed a breakthrough new blood test for schizophrenia, a psychiatric disorder that includes hallucinations and delusions.

Many patients continue to struggle in the wake of the pandemic as they grapple with ongoing symptoms triggered by COVID-19 infection, a condition commonly known as long COVID. However, the onset of symptoms such as brain fog, fatigue, headache, and other types of pain is not unique to COVID infection, according to a new study.

Researchers have discovered a molecular complex crucial for the transport of mitochondria within neurons, offering new insights into preventing neurodegenerative diseases.

A landmark advancement in neural prosthetics has been made, demonstrating the ability to recall specific memories using a newly developed memory decoding model (MDM). The study, involving 14 adults with epilepsy, showed that MDM stimulation significantly improved memory performance, particularly in those with impaired memory, offering hope for treating conditions like Alzheimer’s disease, stroke, or head injury. This research signifies a major step toward creating interventions that can restore lost memory functions, potentially aiding individuals in living more independently.

A new study reveals that excessive stress during adolescence can lead to long-lasting changes in gene expression in the brain, particularly those related to bioenergy functions.

Researchers developed an innovative AI tool, DeepGO-SE, that excels in predicting the functions of unknown proteins, marking a significant advance in bioinformatics. Leveraging large language models and logical entailment, this tool can deduce molecular functions even for proteins without existing database matches, offering a groundbreaking approach to understanding cellular mechanisms.

Researchers have identified cortical gray matter thinning as a potential early biomarker for dementia.

Smoking not only affects immune responses in the short term but also leaves a lasting imprint on the body’s defense mechanisms. This is the finding recently made by a team of scientists at the Institut Pasteur using the Milieu Intérieur cohort of 1,000 healthy volunteers, established to understand variability in immune responses.

MIT neuroscientists have found that the brain’s sensitivity to rewarding experiences—a critical factor in motivation and attention—can be shaped by socioeconomic conditions.

Taking an anticoagulant, or blood-thinning medication, can increase one’s risk of—or exacerbate—a brain bleed, also known as a brain hemorrhage, which is the deadliest type of stroke. Now, new research finds that faster treatment for these patients is associated with a greater likelihood of survival.

Finally this week, language and culture may influence how our brains process emotional faces according to new research.

Weekly Neuroscience Update

February 10, 2024Leave a comment

Illustration of the triple-wise correlation network model. Credit: *Science Advances* (2024).

By mapping brain activity in three dimensions, researchers have achieved a more detailed picture of how the brain changes with age.

A new study reveals epigenetic alterations in the immune system of Alzheimer’s patients’ blood, suggesting environmental or behavioral factors could influence Alzheimer’s risk. The study indicates these epigenetic changes affect genes associated with Alzheimer’s susceptibility, potentially due to factors like viral infections or pollutants.

Almost half of people who suffer a sports-related traumatic brain injury are still experiencing physical symptoms after six months according to new research findings.

A new study suggests a novel link between depression and higher body temperatures, analyzing data from over 20,000 participants worldwide. While the causal relationship remains unclear, findings indicate that body temperature increases with the severity of depression symptoms, offering a potential new avenue for treatment.

Acupuncture may improve language function in patients with poststroke motor aphasia, according to a new study.

Researchers have found that adolescents being bullied by their peers are at greater risk of the early stages of psychotic episodes and in turn experience lower levels of a key neurotransmitter in a part of the brain involved in regulating emotions.

The contraceptive pill also affects the brain and the regulation of emotions, say researchers.

An international research team has developed a computational biology tool, based on multi-level network analysis, to achieve an integrated vision of multiple sclerosis. This tool could be used to study other complex diseases such as types of dementia.

A new scanning study of 390 babies has shown distinct patterns between term and pre-term babies in the moment-to-moment activity and connectivity of brain networks.

Researchers have developed a machine-learning tool that accurately identifies individuals at high risk of psychosis through MRI brain scans. This innovative approach, which achieved an 85% accuracy rate in training and 73% using new data, offers a promising avenue for early intervention in psychosis, potentially improving treatment outcomes.

A new study highlights music’s crucial role in enhancing the quality of life for people aged 50 to 80, with 98% reporting at least one health benefit from engaging with music.

Researchers have unveiled the “MiniTouch,” a revolutionary device that equips prosthetic limbs with the ability to convey thermal sensations to amputees, bridging a significant gap in sensory feedback technology. This breakthrough allows a transradial amputee to differentiate between objects of varying temperatures and experience more human-like touch, enhancing both functional use and emotional connection with the prosthesis.

Scientists have found a new treatment target for CDKL5 deficiency disorder (CDD), one of the most common types of genetic epilepsy.

A new study presents a compelling case for the integration of Large Language Models (LLMs) like ChatGPT into neuroscience, highlighting their potential to transform research by analyzing vast datasets beyond human capability. The authors suggest that LLMs can bridge diverse neuroscience fields by communicating with each other, thus accelerating discoveries in areas such as neurodegeneration drug development.

Finally this week, researchers have developed a robotic sensor that incorporates artificial intelligence techniques to read braille at speeds roughly double that of most human readers.

Weekly Neuroscience Update

February 4, 2024February 4, 2024Leave a comment

*Credit: Cell Stem Cell (2024). DOI: 10.1016/j.stem.2023.12.009*

Researchers have developed the world’s first 3D-printed brain tissue that grows and behaves similarly to natural brain tissue, marking a significant leap forward for neurological and neurodevelopmental disorder research.

For patients with Parkinson disease differences in quality of life outcomes are seen with deep brain stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus (STN-DBS), according to a recent study.

New findings published in the journal Nature Neuroscience have shed light on a mysterious pathway between the reward center of the brain that is key to how we form habits, known as the basal ganglia, and another anatomically distinct region where nearly three-quarters of the brain’s neurons reside and assist in motor learning, known as the cerebellum.

Researchers have shown that a blood test can pinpoint the underlying cause of brain injury in newborns.

A new study suggests that high-intensity training (HIT), compared to conventional training, may improve walking ability in patients with chronic traumatic brain injury (TBI). Possible secondary benefits may include improved aerobic capacity/efficiency and cognition.

A team of scientists has unveiled a potential game-changer in the fight against glioblastoma, the most common and currently incurable form of brain cancer.

Combining brain stimulation with intense physical rehabilitation helped stroke survivors recover movement in their arms and hands and maintain these improvements for one year, according to a study to be presented at the American Stroke Association’s International Stroke Conference 2024.

Psychologists have investigated the extent to which neuromodulation of the brain with ultrasound waves influences people’s behavior. The results can also be used as a basis for therapeutic purposes.

A preliminary study reveals that intravenous injections of ginkgo biloba components could significantly improve early cognitive recovery in ischemic stroke patients. Conducted across multiple centers in China, the research tested the effects of ginkgo diterpene lactone meglumine (GDLM) on 3,163 stroke survivors, showing notable improvements in cognitive scores compared to a placebo group.

The brains and blood of people with a history of excessive drinking show cellular evidence of premature aging.

A new study gives insights into the underlying mechanisms of the formation of protein clumps in Alzheimer’s disease. The study could pave the way for new treatments for this devastating neurodegenerative disorder.

Finally, this week, engaging in music throughout your life is associated with better brain health in older age, according to a new study.

Weekly Neuroscience Update

January 19, 2024January 19, 2024Leave a comment

Three experiments to test how dopamine affects cognitive performance during acute exercise. Credit: *The Journal of Physiology* (2024)

A study exploring the mechanisms behind why cognitive performance improves in response to exercise, has found that dopamine plays a key role.

Researchers have discovered that children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) develop distinct attentional preferences compared to typically developing children, focusing more on non-social stimuli like objects and textures.

Brain structure predicts treatment response to antidepressant and placebo medications, according to a new study.

Recent research contrasts the learning mechanisms of the human brain with those of deep learning in AI. Despite having fewer layers and slower, noisier dynamics, the brain can perform complex classification tasks as effectively as AI with hundreds of layers.

A new study uncovers a unique aspect of human memory: our ability to recall events is sharper after experiencing negative emotions.

A major clinical trial has shown that by using MRI and tracking to guide the delivery of magnetic stimulation to the brains of people with severe depression, patients will see their symptoms ease for at least six months, which could vastly improve their quality of life.

New research reveals that coming off antidepressants like Prozac can cause not only physical symptoms but also emotional, cognitive, and social difficulties.

Through transcriptomic profiling of more than 300,000 cells in human substantia nigra, a part of the brain that helps control the body’s movements, a research team has identified a previously unreported neuron type with vulnerability in Parkinson’s disease. This novel finding could help explain the complexity of the disease symptoms and direct new therapeutics development.

Researchers have found evidence suggesting that children exposed to elevated levels of early life adversity exhibit an accelerated pattern of brain development during the preschool years.

New research for the first time reveals the function of a little-understood junction between cells in the brain that could have important treatment implications for conditions ranging from multiple sclerosis to Alzheimer’s disease, to a type of brain cancer known as glioma.

Finally this week, a third major study finds that multivitamin supplements improve memory and slow cognitive aging in older adults.

Weekly Neuroscience Update

January 12, 2024Leave a comment

Researchers carried out a study exploring the impact of context on goal-directed decision-making. Their findings, published in Neuron, suggest that goal-seeking ‘compresses’ spatial maps in the hippocampus and orbitofrontal cortices in the brain.

Learning a second language strengthens neural connections in the language network, a new study shows.

A recent review highlights significant advancements in wearable electroencephalogram (EEG) technologies for non-invasive brain-computer interfaces (BCIs). This review is particularly valuable for researchers and clinicians new to BCI applications, offering insights into mainstream wearable non-invasive BCIs and the latest research reports.

New research may create some respite for patients of two medically unexplained fatigue-inducing conditions: myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS) and fibromyalgia (FM).

A new study has found that people with obesity who underwent bariatric surgery had stable cognition two years later suggesting that bariatric surgery may mitigate the natural history of cognitive decline expected in people with obesity.

New research has found an association between a reduction in gray matter in the brain and early-onset psychosis.

Researchers have discovered that a protein called phosphorylated α-synuclein, which is associated with several neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson’s disease and Lewy body dementia, is also involved in the normal processes of how neurons communicate with each other in a healthy brain.

Adults with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) have smaller cerebellums, according to new research from a brain imaging study.

A recent study published in Molecular Psychiatry has identified previously unknown alterations in neural connectivity that promote psychomotor disturbance—a slowing or reduction in movement—in individuals with major depressive disorder.

Finally this week, new research explores the potential of aesthetic chills, intense emotional responses characterized by shivers and goosebumps, as a novel intervention for depression.

Weekly Neuroscience Update

January 5, 2024Leave a comment

A new study has identified a neural coding mechanism that allows the transfer of information back and forth between perceptual regions to memory areas of the brain. The results are published in Nature Neuroscience.

Perceived time has a significant impact on the actual time it takes to heal physical wounds, according to new research.

Researchers have identified a wide range of risk factors for young-onset dementia. The findings challenge the notion that genetics are the sole cause of the condition, laying the groundwork for new prevention strategies.

Scientists have uncovered a key brain pathway mediating panic disorder symptoms.

Researchers have developed a groundbreaking synaptic transistor inspired by the human brain. This device can simultaneously process and store information, mimicking the brain’s capacity for higher-level thinking.

People who have more disrupted sleep in their 30s and 40s may be more likely to have memory and thinking problems a decade later, according to new research published in Neurology.

With help from an artificial language network, neuroscientists have discovered what kind of sentences are most likely to fire up the brain’s key language processing centers. The new study reveals that more complex sentences, either because of unusual grammar or unexpected meaning, generate stronger responses in these language processing centers. Very straightforward sentences barely engage these regions, and nonsensical sequences of words don’t do much for them either.

Finally this week, scientists have identified a molecular anchor that stabilizes mitochondria near synapses to support memory formation.